By Syd Goodman and Mrityunjoy Mazumdar

This article appeared in a modified form in the May 1999 issue of Warships International Fleet Review

The independent Indian Navy is young but in a short space of time it has established itself as one of the world’s most energetic & forward thinking. Last edition we saw how it’s late 20th century ambition and potential capability are hampered only by a perceived lack of funding. In part two of our Indian Navy special, the authors take a brief look at the chronology & development of this leading fleet.

While it may be a youthful service in its own right, the Indian Navy has its roots in the 17th Century’s British East India Company. The East India Company was founded by Royal Charter of Queen Elizabeth I at the end of the year 1600. Twelve years later the Honourable East India Company's Marine was formed and almost immediately engaged the Portuguese in a series of successful sea battles lasting through 1630, thus paving the way for unhindered British trade. Indian-built ships stationed at various points along the coast began to play an important part in the trading of the company. They formed the basis of the self-styled Bombay Marine from 1686, and its relationship with the British navy was very close. The sons of many aspiring British middle class families joined its ranks, including one Horatio Nelson. More than two years in the waters around the Indian sub-continent introduced the young Nelson to Madras, Ceylon, Calcutta and Bombay. He also contracted malaria and nearly died.

In 1827 the East India Company’s sea-going officers were granted naval rank and came under the supervision of a regular serving naval officer. On the first day of May 1830, the Royal Indian Marine became the Indian Navy by warrant from Lord High Admiral Prince William. In 1858 the East India Company ceased trading, and the Royal Indian Marine (RIM) was officially absorbed into the Royal Navy as Her Majesty’s Indian Navy. However in April 1863 it re-emerged as the Bombay Marine, and 14 years later, became Her Majesty's Indian Marine, which in turn ended up as the Royal Indian Marine by 1892. The RIM was responsible for rivers and coastal waters together with the transporting of troops between the UK and India. After the First World War the RIM boasted three sloops, the Cornwallis, the Lawrence, and the Clive. The Lawrence and the Clive were built in Britain specifically for the RIM which also had two ex-RN patrol vessels, a survey ship and a trawler. Further new constructions were undertaken in the U.K. both in the 1930s and during WW2. The first of these vessels worthy of note was a Hastings Class sloop named Hindustan. Laid down in September 1929 on the Tyne, she was completed in October 1930 and served until 1948 when she was transferred to Pakistan.

In October 1934, with big plans afoot to expand Indian naval forces, the service was renamed the Royal Indian Navy (RIN). In March 1935 the Indus was completed. She was a Grimsby Class sloop later followed by the Jumna and Sutlej in 1941. In 1943 the Godavari and Narbada were completed, followed by two modified Black Swan Class sloops, the Cauvery and Kistna. Also added were ten Bangor class minesweepers (six built in Britain and four in Australia) and harbour defence motor launches. It was proposed that 43 Basset Class trawlers should be built, but only 26 were completed. One of the Australian-built minesweepers, the Bengal, sank a Japanese raider on her way to India. The turmoil of the Indian independence and emergence of Pakistan as a separate nation led to a division of the Indian fleet in August 1947. Around one-third of the force went to Pakistan. Britain was anxious to maintain a balance between the two new independent nations and transferred additional warships on an almost equal basis, including a cruiser to each naval force. On 26 January 1950, the RIN was re-named the Indian Navy. Its principal units were one cruiser, three R Class destroyers, four frigates, four sloops, and six minesweepers. In 1953 three Hunt Class frigates were transferred to the IN as part of a three-year lend-lease deal, with the cruiser Nigeria following in 1957 and becoming the INS Mysore.

This year also witnessed the birth of the Fleet Air Arm, with the commissioning of INAS 550 (equipped with Sealand and Firefly aircraft) on 11 May 1953. That same year India bought the uncompleted aircraft carrier Hercules from the UK. She was finished in the British yard and delivered to India in 1961, becoming INS Vikrant. On 22 April 1958, Admiral R.D. Katari became the first Indian CNS, a post which hitherto had been filled by RN Admirals, including notables such as the late Admiral Sir Mark Pizey, who is considered to be the father of the modern Indian Navy. In the late 50s and early 60s, the Indian Navy’s frigate and destroyer force acquired a formidable anti-air warfare and anti-submarine warfare capability with the transfer of many ex-RN and new built units. Three modified Blackwood Class ASW frigates, Khukri, Kirpan and Kuthar; two Whitby Class surface-warfare frigates, Talwar and Trishul; and three Leopard Class anti-air frigates, Brahmaputra, Beas and the Betwa joined the fleet. Four Ham Class inshore minesweepers were ordered from the U.K. for India, two of which were built in the U.K. and two in India. In early 1961, the IN played an active part in the recapture of Goa from the Portuguese. The IN was largely inactive during the 1965 Indo-Pak War, and, in a sense, the prevailing circumstances conspired against the IN to keep it from performing it’s missions adequately.

Through the 60s and early 70s, in the midst of the changing geopolitical environment, the Soviet Union replaced Britain as the primary supplier of warships. This was in part as a result of British reticence in parting with state-of-the-art ships and submarines to the IN, and also due to Britain’s failure to offer favourable prices. The IN fleet expanded as local construction of warships increased, and, more significantly, with the numerous additional units being acquired from the Soviet Union. The Indian-built British designs included four Ford Class SDBs, Ham Class minesweepers, and six Leander Class frigates, the first of which were laid down in 1966 at Mazagon Dockyard, Bombay. These frigates were the first major warships to be built in India. In 1967, the first of four Soviet Foxtrot submarines, the Kalvari, was commissioned, and five Petya Class ASW patrol ships were acquired in 1969. In early 1971, eight Osa-I Class missile boats were transferred and used to great effect only a few months later. The Indian Navy really showed its potential during the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971 when a task group, led by INS Vikrant, decimated the Pakistani naval and ground forces in the eastern theatre of East Pakistan, now Bangladesh. In the west, a task force of Styx- equipped Osa-I missile boats (towed to their rendezvous point by frigates), dealt a killer blow to Pakistani naval facilities and vessels in Karachi. This lightning strike, following in the wake of the 1967 sinking of the Israeli destroyer Eliath by similar missiles fired from Egyptian Komars, was a real revelation to the rest of the world's navies.

However, this campaign was bittersweet for the Indian Navy as it earned the dubious distinction of being the first navy since WW2 to lose a warship to a submarine when the old ASW frigate, INS Khukri, while on ASW patrol in the Arabian Sea, was torpedoed by the Pakistani submarine Hangor and sank with almost all hands. The Indian Navy also claims to have sunk the Pakistani submarine Ghazi, off the eastern coast of India, but it is possible that this submarine may have been sunk by one of it’s own mines which it had laid at the approaches to the IN base at Vishakapatnam. When the USN Task Force 77, led by the carrier USS Enterprise, steamed into the Bay of Bengal ostensibly to evacuate Westerners in East Pakistan, tensions ran high between the Indians and Americans. In response to the perceived threat from the US fleet, the IN submarine Karanj is now known to have been shadowing the carrier, with it reportedly moving into firing position on several occasions. Tensions also ran high between the Soviets and the Americans, with the Soviets threatening to intervene if the USN engaged the IN. Throughout the 70s there was a major expansion in the fleet as many other new-build ships and submarines were acquired from the Soviet Union. Four locally-built Leander (Nilgiri) Class frigates, five additional Petyas, eight Osa-II FAC(M), four modified Foxtrot submarines, three large Nanuchka Class missile corvettes, four Natya Class minesweepers, and more amphibious units joined the fleet along with naval air assets.

The two competing camps in the Cold War had been making strenuous moves to recruit this powerful new maritime nation to their camps, and the Indian victory in 1971 increased this pressure. But India was keen to stay friendly with both sides and retain her freedom of action, following the principles of non-alignment. Hence the mixture of Russian-origin and British-origin vessels that evolved in her fleet, along with vessels from other European and Asian nations including conventionally powered submarines from Germany and OPVs from South Korea. The 80s saw further expansion of the fleet. The Russians provided numerous submarines, ships and aircraft. The Indians bought Kilo Class diesel-electric submarines from the Russians. After modifying and replacing the troublesome battery system, they enjoyed better operational reliability than had the Russians, and they continued to acquire this type of boat. Kashin destroyers, Tarantul Class guided-missile corvettes, additional minesweepers and amphibious units were also sold by the Russians. The Germans sold two Type 1500 SSK subs, along with components for two additional units to be assembled in India. The last two units of the Leander frigate programme, now with considerable modifications, were commissioned as the Taragiri and the Vindhyagiri. Additionally, three stretched and much-modified Leander derivatives were commissioned as the Godavari, Gomati and Ganga.

The most significant move in the relationship with Russia was the lending of a Charlie Class nuclear attack submarine in 1988, commissioned as the INS Chakra. This enabled Indians to learn about nuclear submarine operation and construction for their own ambitious SSN program, the so-called Advanced Technology Vessel or ATV. This project has been reported at various times to be based on the Charlie Class as well as on contemporary Russian designs such as the Severodvinsk. More recently, there have been reports of the Russians wanting to sell two unfinished Akula subs to the Indians. One of the first things the IN discovered was the instability of Russian nuclear submarine reactors, allegedly leading one wag to christen the Charlie Class boat INS Chernobyl. This unit was returned in 1991, but not after causing considerable consternation in the major Western navies. In 1986 the former British carrier, Hermes, was bought by India as its fleet flagship to operate Sea Harrier strike jets and Sea King helicopters. Re-named INS Viraat, she underwent an extensive refit in Devonport Dockyard, intended to give her a life extension of 10 years. The refit included new fire control equipment, navigation radars, and deck landing aids. Boilers were converted to take distillate fuel, and the ship was given improved NBC protection. She was commissioned into service with the Indian Navy in May 1987.

Misfortune struck in September 1993 when her engine room was flooded, taking her out of service for a long period. However, by 1995, she was back in service with a new search radar. The following year, two Bofors 40mm guns were fitted in the starboard and forward bow, and two AK-230 30mm CIWS which replaced the obsolete Seacat SAM launchers. Israeli EW equipment had also been fitted. INS Viraat was supposed to have a two-year overhaul in 97/98 to extend her service life up to 2010, but this was put off due to budgetary constraints. A refit is still planned to happen in 1999 and will take 14 - 18 months to complete. This refit is supposed to extend the carrier’s serviceability to 2006 and will include a new long-range surveillance radar, modern communication systems, new hangar fire curtains to isolate fires, a revamped lift system to reduce reaction time in the event of an attack, and a new flood alarm system. By the end of the 1980s, when the former HMS Hermes was just starting her new life as INS Viraat, the Indian Navy's frontline fleet was impressive, even if some of the units were starting to show their age. The line-up included one SSN, more than a dozen SSKs, two operational carriers (Vikrant only having become non-operational in 1997), five destroyers, and two dozen frigates, corvettes and patrol boats along with considerable numbers of amphibious and MCM assets.

This decade also saw the introduction of the Tupolev Tu-142M Bear-F long range MPA with INAS 312 in 1988. India remains the only country other than Russia and the former USSR to operate this aircraft. The straddling of the East-West divide by the Indian Navy has nowhere found better expression than in the use of Leander Class frigate hulls to create the hybrid Godavari Class of frigates. They are fitted with a mix of Western, Russian and Indian electronics and weapon systems. This integration of Western, Russian and indigenous technology is remarkable, and justifiably, the Indian Naval Design Organization (INDO) is very proud of its achievements in this regard. This approach has been further developed in the Brahmaputra (modified Godavari Class) frigates and the Delhi Class destroyers. In fact, the IN is adept at modifying the electronics of its many Russian weapons systems, with improvements being incorporated by the Russians into subsequent production versions. In the 90s, the major thrust has been the local production of warships and weapons systems, as well as qualitative improvements to the electronics & weapons systems. Much of the impetus for the renewed drive for indigenization derives from the desire to prevent a re-occurrence of the operational problems experienced by the Indian Armed Forces as the USSR disintegrated, and the operation of its centralized arms export agencies fell into disarray.

Consequently spares and service became exceedingly difficult to obtain and operational capabilities of the armed forces were severely degraded. The decade of the 90s also signalled the period when the IN began to shed its rather insular attitude and initiated a series of exercises with foreign navies, notably the USN, and other regional navies. The relationship with the USN is especially significant in light of the events of 1971. Since the 80s, the IN has been involved in playing the role of the regional policeman in support of Indian foreign policy and in UN operations in places like the Maldives, Sri Lanka and Somalia. The development of the Indian Navy’s new vessels and other warship construction programmes, including the new Delhi Class destroyers, was studied at in depth in the last edition of Warships IFR. Taking an overall view of the current Indian Navy, it can be said that it is in the throes of having to deal with block obsolescence of large numbers of its ships and the available funding is very limited. A priority for the admirals is the building and/or acquisition of new carriers, with the buying of an ex-Russian vessels such as the Gorshkov, under active discussion along with the initiation of the build program of the home grown carrier, the ADS, which is currently awaiting cabinet clearance. Another priority is the modification of existing units to upgrade their capabilities with the upgrading of the Kilo Class subs with missiles and possibly AIP systems is high on the list. However, the Government of India is wary of such a huge commitment of resources and the Admirals have their work cut out for them.

The reader must bear in mind that the major naval expansions from the late 60s, to the 80s could not have been possible without the peculiar geopolitical situation that existed between India and the Soviet Union as a consequence of the Cold War. The arms transfers during this period were on exceedingly friendly terms and, more than anything, payment was in local currency instead of valuable foreign exchange. Of course, this is no longer the case and probably explains why recent negotiations with the Russians tend to be so protracted and drawn out. Thus, in realistic terms, the IN does not enjoy the kind of purchasing power that it once had and the renewed drive for local production/design/adaptation is born out of necessity. It would appear that the Navy has made the most strides amongst all the armed services in following the government’s stated policy for encouraging local manufacture of armaments, yet it remains chronically under-funded because of a lack of appreciation for the implications of naval power at the political level. That, of course, is a battle for the Admirals to fight. As such, many experts believe a careful and pragmatic approach needs to be adopted when dealing with the question of replacement programmes. Like many other navies, India's should probably make the best of a reduced budget to give it a smaller but more effective force.

Already, there have been a host of qualitative improvements and the newer ships being designed or commissioned tend to reflect this philosophy. The threat of Chinese naval expansion is presently uppermost in the minds of the Indian Navy’s top brass, particularly if Pakistan forms an alliance with the communist superpower, but closer links with the Japanese and Western navies, in addition to sensible modernization, can counter this. Following the May 1998 nuclear explosions and the subsequent declaration of India as a nuclear power, a whole host of confidence-building measures involving exercises and flag-showing visits to numerous regional countries and even to Japan have been taking place. Thus it would appear that political uses of naval power is finally being appreciated by the government. However relations with the USN have seen a temporary cooling off in light of the sanctions imposed on India by the USA. More recently, a very welcome development is the announcement that the IN plans a port visit to Karachi in the near future. This would be the first such visit between the navies of India and Pakistan and, hopefully, represents a new era of stability and de-escalation of tensions between these two nations, which, after all, share a common heritage.

Authors' Note: Since the time the article was originally written in March 1999, there are renewed tensions between India and Pakistan once again. It appears that since last winter, several hundred Kashmiri militants and regular Pakistani army troops infiltrated across the Line of Control (LoC) into Kargil in Kashmir and occupied key positions on strategic mountain peaks. Since last May, the Indian military has been trying to dislodge these well-ensconced infiltrators from positions as high as 17,000 feet, with the fighting being particularly brutal and bloody. The armed forces of both nations have been fully mobilised with the navies of India and Pakistan having been placed on full alert. It appears that once again, these two nations may yet have another full-scale war.

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